RETHINKING THE IMPACT OF THE CRUSADES ON THE MUSLIM-CHRISTIAN THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT
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Philip Khuri Hitti, “The Impact of the Crusades on Moslem Lands”, in The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, eds. Norman P. Zacour and Harry W. Hazard, in A History of the Crusades, 6 vols., ed. Kenneth M. Setton (London: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), vol. v, 33.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 35.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 36.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 37.
Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspective (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997), 283.
Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspective, 354.
Yvonne Friedman has mentioned approximately 109 treaties successfully made between Franks and Muslims between the years 1097 and 1291; these treatise were undertaken for various reasons, but trade and exchange of prisoners were in particular which allowed more peaceful forms of interaction; on this see, for example, Niall Christie, Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity’s Wars in the Middle East, 1095-1382, From the Islamic Sources (London and New York: Routledge, 2014), 73.
Christie, Muslims and Crusaders, 113.
Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 3 vols. (Chicago And London: The University of Chicago Press, 1974), vol. 2, 265; on this, see also, David Nicolle, The Crusades (UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001), 8; Paul M. Cobb, The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades ( New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 173.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 39.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 45; see also, Christie, Muslims and Crusaders, 77-85; Paul M. Cobb, The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades, tr. From Usama bin Munqidh’s Kitab al-I‘tibar (London and New York: Penguin Books, 1980), 111-116; Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspective, 275.
There were ideological differences and strong hostility from the popes who tried hard to abandon the commercial relations with the enemy (Muslims). However, such papal announcements were not heard to prevent this mutually beneficial trade from continuing; for further details, see, for examples, Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspective, 391-406.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 38.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 38.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 38.
Christie, Muslims and Crusaders, 76.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 39.
For a detailed and valuable account on the development of “funduq” see, Olivia Remie Constable’s “Funduq, Fondaco, and Khan in the Wake of Christian Commerce and Crusade”, in The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, ed., Angeliki E. Laiou and Roy Parviz Mottahedeh (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001), 145-156.
Constable, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World; see also, Christie, Muslims and Crusaders, 75-76.
Oleg Grabar, “The Crusades and the Development of Islamic Art”, in The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, 238.
Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspective, 382.
Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspective, 382.
On this see, Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspective, 282-285; Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 43; Grabar, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, 237-238.
Grabar, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, 238.
Grabar, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, 239.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 44; Grabar, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, 239.
David Nicolle, The Crusades (UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001), 64-65.
Çok Geç, “Crusades in the Middle East: the Impact of the Holy Land Crusades on Europe”, All Empires: Online History Community, 1 November 2006, http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=crusades_impact_europe (accessed on 23 November 2015).
Andrew Curry, “The First Holy War”, Mysteries of Faith, 2003, 69.
Gustav Lebon, The world of Islamic civilization (New York: Tudor Publishers, 1974), 334.
M. A. Cook (ed.), Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the rise of Islam to the present day (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 7.
Richard Anger Newhall, The Crusades (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969), pp. 101-102; see also, for example, geç, loc. Cit.; Helen Nicholson, The Crusades (London: Greenwood press, 2004), 95-96.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 38; see also, Myoung-Woon Cha, “The Crusades, Their Influence and Their Relevance for Today” (PhD thesis, Pretoria: University of Pretoria, 2006), 56; see also note 13 above.
Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs: From the Earliest times to the Present, tenth edition (London: Macmillan Press, 1970), p. 346 (hereafter cited as Hitti, History of the Arabs).
Geç, “Crusades in the Middle East: the Impact of the Holy Land Crusades on Europe”.
Europeans had until used honey for sweetening their foods. It is stated that sugar was the first luxury product introduced into the west that nothing else so delighted the Western people than this many new products were made out of sugar, on this see, Hitti, History of the Arabs, 665, 667.
Hitti, History of the Arabs, 665, 667; on this, see also, Will Durant, The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith, 11 vols. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1950), vol. 4, 486.
Hitti, History of the Arabs, 668.
Durant, The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith, 486.
Çok Geç, “Crusades in the Middle East: the Impact of the Holy Land Crusades on Europe”.
Hitti, History of the Arabs, 669.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 40.
Better techniques of banking were introduced from Byzantium and Islam; new forms and instruments of credit appeared; more money circulated, more ideas, and more men.
On this see, Kathryn Hurlock, Britain, Ireland, and the Crusades, c. 1000-1300 (UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 121-122.
Gothic architecture are building designs or style of architecture, as first pioneered and flourished in Western Europe in the Middle Ages. It began in France in the 12th century. The Gothic style grew out of Romanesque architecture; for a detailed study of Gothic architecture, see Jean Bony, French Gothic Architecture of the 12th and 13th Centuries (London: The University of California Press), 1983.
Aziz. S. Atiya, Crusade, Commerce and Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1962), 127.
Zia H. Shah, “Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe”, themuslimtimes.info, December 11, 2011, retrieved on 22 December 2015 from http://themuslimtimes.info/2011/12/11/islamic-contributions-to-medieval-europe/; see also, S. M. Imamuddin, Some Aspects of the Socio-Economic and Cultural History of Muslim Spain 711-1192 A.D. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1965), especially pp. 198-199.
Grabar, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, 239; See also, for example, Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 44.
Atiya, Crusade, Commerce and Culture, 125.
David Nicolle, “Arms and Armour”, in B. Z. Kedar, ed., The Horns of Hattin (Jerusalem, 1992), 335 (hereafter cited as Nicolle, “Arms and Armour”).
Machicolation was an opening between the corbels of a parapet, or in the floor of a gallery, or on the roof of a portal of a castle, for dropping liquids or discharging missiles on assailants from without.
Atiya, Crusade, Commerce and Culture, 125-126.
Nicolle, “Arms and Armour”, 335.
Joshua Prawer, “The Roots of Medieval Colonialism”, in V. P. Goss, ed., The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange between East and West during the period of the Crusades (Kalamazoo, 1986), p. 31, as mentioned in Rickie Lette, “Cultural Exchange in the Crusader States of the Levant” (n. p.), 2.
Hitti, The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East, 44; Lette, “Cultural Exchange in the Crusader States of the Levant”, 2.
Atiya, Crusade, Commerce and Culture, 127; on this, see also, Durant, The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith, 485;
Holmes, U. T., “Life Among the Europeans in Palestine and Syria in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Century”, in H. W. Hazard, A History of the Crusades vol. IV: The art and architecture of crusader states (Madison, 1977), 18-19.
Atiya, Crusade, Commerce and Culture, 127.
Woon Cha, “The Crusades, Their Influence and Their Relevance for Today”, 52.
Hitti, History of the Arabs, 47-48.
Gunpowder brought an immense advantage to the Europe views Bernard Lewis. He states that it “was brought to Europe, where it was adapted to a new and deadly purpose—firearms. These gave an immense and often decisive advantage to Europeans in their warfare with others, most obviously in the New World, but also to a growing extent in their encounters with the civilizations of the Old World and even with the empires of Islam”, on this, see Bernard Lewis, Cultures in Conflict Christians, Muslims, and Jews in The Age of Discovery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 20.
Durant, The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith; John R. Mott, The Muslim World of To-Day (New Delhi, Inter-India Publications, 1985), 22-23.
Atiya, Crusade, Commerce and Culture, 127.
Helen Nicholson, The Crusades (Greenwood press, 2004), 95 as qouted in Geç, “Crusades in the Middle East: the Impact of the Holy Land Crusades on Europe”.
Nicholson, The Crusades, 95.
Joseph Schacht & C. E. Bosworth, the Legacy of Islam, 2nd edition (Oxford Clarendon press, 1974), 24 as qouted in Geç, “Crusades in the Middle East: the Impact of the Holy Land Crusades on Europe”.
Durant, The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith, 485.
On this, see, for example, Lee Masoodul Hasan, Review, “Narrating the Crusades: Loss and Recovery in Medieval and Early Modern English Literature”, Lee Manion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), in The Muslim World Book Review, 36(2):1-71, 2016, 48-50; Many romantic authors, such as Sir Walter Scott (1771 –1832, he was a Scottish historical novelist, playwright and poet), produced great novels in which Crusade theme remained a dominant feature such as Tales of the Crusaders (it is a series of novels), The Talisman to name a few. It is important to note here that a leading Crusades historian Jonathan Riley-Smith has accused Walter Scott of propagating a romanticized view of the Crusades now putatively discredited by some academics, “which depicts the Muslims as sophisticated and civilised, and the Crusaders are all brutes and barbarians. It has nothing to do with reality”, see, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Talisman_(Scott_novel)#cite_note-Telegraph-1.
Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Muslim Eastern Response (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 6-7.
On this Durant states: “The sight of diverse peoples, of lordly barons and proud knights, sometimes of emperors and kings, uniting in a religious cause led by the Church raised the status of the papacy. Papal legates entered every country and diocese to stir recruiting and gather funds for the Crusades; their authority encroached upon, often superseded, that of the hierarchy; and through them the faithful became almost directly tributory to the pope”, see Durant, The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith, 486.
Carter Lindberg, A Brief History of Christianity (UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), 70; for a detailed study on various aspects such as origin, theological and institutional development of “Indulgence”, see for example, Ane L. Bysted, The Crusade Indulgence: Spiritual Rewards and the Theology of the Crusades, c. 1095–1216 (Leiden: Brill, 2015).
There were mixed motives, religious, political, economic and material, of the Crusades and the Crusaders as reflected in archbishop William of Tyre’s (ca. 1130–ca. 1187) History of the Deeds Done Beyond the Sea: “Not all of them, indeed, were there on behalf of the Lord . . . All of them went for different reasons.”
Durant, The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith, 486; see also, Lindberg, A Brief History of Christianity, 70.
Molly Greene, A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2000), 6.
Greene, A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean; see also, Crusading Peace: Christendom, the Muslim World, and Western Political Order (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2002), 279.
Rodney Stark, God’s Battalions: The Case for the Crusades (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 247.
Lindberg, A Brief History of Christianity, 70.
Woon Cha, “The Crusades, Their Influence and Their Relevance for Today”; on the crusading policy that eventually led its decay, see a good description of Norman Housley, “The Thirteenth-Century Crusades in the Mediterranean”, in The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume V c. 1198—c.1300, ed., David Abulafia (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 585-587.
“In feudal society, the lord was responsible for protecting his vassals and their lands, and his vassals were obligated to serve the lord through both military service when needed and counsel when called upon. The church was fully involved in the feudal system, having its own fief holdings and lordship as well as being obligated to provide men and material to their lords, secular and religious”, in Lindberg, A Brief History of Christianity, 85.
Atiya, Crusade, Commerce and Culture, 124; on this, see also, Clifford R. Backman, The Worlds of Medieval Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 262.
Lindberg, A Brief History of Christianity, 70.
Atiya, Crusade, Commerce and Culture, 124.
Zouhair Ghazzal, “The Ulama: Status and Function”, in A Companion to the History of the Middle East, ed., Youssef M. Choueiri (UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2005), 75; on this, see also, Housley, “The Thirteenth-Century Crusades in the Mediterranean”, 588.
There is a wealth of literature on medieval European perceptions of Islam and the Muslims, as expressed in many scholarly studies. For example, see R. W. Southern, Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1962); Aldobrandino Malvezzi, L’Islamismo e la cultura europea (Florence: Sansoni, 1956); Norman Daniel, Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Edinburgh: Edinburg University Press, 1960).
Jonathan Phillips, “the Crusades: sources, Impact and context”, in The Medieval Crusade, ed., Susan Janet Ridyard (UK: Boydell Press, 2004), 4.
Woon Cha, “The Crusades, Their Influence and Their Relevance for Today”, 61; on this, see also, Jonathan Howard, “introduction”, in The Crusades: A History of One of the Most Epic Military Campaigns of All Time (n.p.: Golgotha Press, 2011), Kindle Edition; and John L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 37-39.
G. Michael Stathis, “The Crusades: A Modern Perspective on the 900th Anniversary of the Event” (lecture delivered at Southern Utah University, Utah, November 30, 1995), 20.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.21043/qijis.v5i2.2259
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